Keberhasilan Kontra-Reformasi di Benua dan pertumbuhan suatu Puritan pihak didedikasikan untuk lebih reformasi Protestan yang terpolarisasi Usia Elizabeth , meskipun tidak sampai Perang Saudara dari 1640-an bahwa Inggris mengalami konflik agama yang sebanding dengan tetangga-tetangganya memiliki mengalami beberapa generasi sebelumnya.
Pada abad ke-20, Protestan, terutama di Amerika Serikat , ditandai dengan mempercepat fragmentasi. Abad itu melihat munculnya kelompok sempalan kedua liberal dan konservatif, serta sekularisasi umum masyarakat Barat. Perkembangan terkemuka di abad ke-20 dari AS Protestanisme adalah bangkitnya Pentakostalisme , fundamentalisme Kristen dan Protestan . Sementara gerakan-gerakan ini telah tumpah ke Eropa untuk tingkat yang terbatas, pengembangan Protestan di Eropa lebih didominasi oleh sekularisasi, yang menyebabkan semakin " pasca-Kristen Eropa ".
[ sunting ]Sejarah dan asal
Protestan umumnya melacak ke abad 16 pemisahan mereka dari Gereja Katolik. Mainstream Protestan dimulai dengan Reformasi Magister , disebut demikian karena gerakan ini mendapat dukungan dari para hakim (yaitu, otoritas sipil) yang bertentangan dengan Reformasi Radikal , yang tidak memiliki sponsor negara. Gereja-gereja Protestan yang lebih tua, seperti Fratrum Unitas( Kesatuan Ikhwan ), Saudara-saudara Moravia atau Ikhwan Bohemian melacak asal mereka untuk saat Jan Hus di abad 15 awal. Sebagai Hussit gerakan ini dipimpin oleh mayoritas bangsawan Bohemian dan diakui untuk sementara waktu oleh compacts Basel, ini dianggap oleh beberapa orang sebagai Magister pertama Reformasi di Eropa. Di Jerman, seratus tahun kemudian, protes terhadap otoritas Katolik Roma meletus di banyak tempat sekaligus, selama waktu mengancam Islam Ottoman invasi ¹ yang terganggu pangeran Jerman pada khususnya. Untuk tingkat tertentu, protes tersebut dapat dijelaskan oleh peristiwa dua abad sebelumnya di Eropa dan khususnya di Bohemia. Sebelumnya di bagian selatan Perancis, di mana pengaruh lama dari Catharmenyebabkan protes yang berkembang terhadap Paus dan otoritas-Nya, Guillaume Farel (lahir 1489) diberitakan reformasi sejak 1522 di Dauphiné , di mana Perancis Perang Agama kemudian berasal pada 1562, juga dikenal sebagai Huguenot perang. Ini juga menyebar kemudian ke bagian lain dari Eropa.
[ sunting ]Akar dan prekursor: abad ke-14 dan abad ke-15
Kerusuhan karena Kepausan Avignon dan Skisma Kepausan di Gereja Katolik Roma (1378-1416) telah bersemangat perang antara pangeran, pemberontakan di antara petani, dan perhatian luas atas korupsi dalam Gereja. Sebuah baru nasionalisme juga menantang dunia abad pertengahan yang relatif internasionalis. Yang pertama dari serangkaian perspektif mengganggu dan baru datang dari John Wycliffe di Universitas Oxford , kemudian dari Jan Hus di Universitas Praha (Hus sebelumnya telah dipengaruhi oleh Wycliffe selama perjalanan ke Inggris). Gereja Katolik secara resmi menyimpulkan perdebatan ajaran Hus 'di Konsili Konstanz (1414-1417). Pertemuan ini mengutuk Jan Hus yang dihukum mati dengan membakar meskipun janji aman-perilaku. Atas perintah Paus Martin V , Wycliffe secara anumerta digali dan dibakar sebagai penyesat dua belas tahun setelah penguburannya.
Konsili Constance dikonfirmasi dan memperkuat konsepsi abad pertengahan tradisional Gereja dan Empires. Ini tidak mengatasi ketegangan nasional, atau ketegangan teologis yang telah diaduk selama abad sebelumnya. Dewan tidak dapat mencegah skisma dan Perang Hussit di Bohemia . [2]
Pergolakan sejarah biasanya menghasilkan banyak pemikiran baru tentang bagaimana masyarakat harus diorganisir. Hal ini terjadi menjelang Reformasi Protestan. Setelah runtuhnya lembaga monastik dan skolastisisme di Eropa akhir abad pertengahan, yang ditekankan oleh "Babel" dari Kepausan, Skisma Kepausan, dan kegagalan gerakan konsili , abad keenam belas melihat mengobarkan perdebatan budaya yang besar tentang reformasi agama dan nilai-nilai agama kemudian mendasar (Lihat mistisisme Jerman ). Sejarawan umumnya akan menganggap bahwa kegagalan untuk mereformasi (terlalu banyak kepentingan pribadi, kurangnya koordinasi dalam koalisi reformasi) akhirnya akan menyebabkan pergolakan besar atau bahkan revolusi, karena sistem akhirnya harus disesuaikan atau hancur, dan kegagalan konsili gerakan membantu menyebabkan Reformasi Protestan di Eropa. Gerakan-gerakan reformis yang frustrasi berkisar darinominalisme , Devotio moderna (pengabdian modern) , untuk humanisme yang terjadi dalam hubungannya dengan kekuatan ekonomi, politik dan demografi yang memberikan kontribusi terhadap ketidakpuasan yang berkembang dengan kekayaan dan kekuasaan dari elit ulama , kepekaan penduduk terhadap keuangan dan moral yang korupsi dari sekuler Renaissance gereja.
Hasil dari Black Death mendorong reorganisasi radikal ekonomi, dan akhirnya masyarakat Eropa. Di pusat-pusat perkotaan muncul, bagaimanapun, bencana dari abad kelima belas dan keempat belas awal, dan kekurangan tenaga kerja yang dihasilkan, memberikan dorongan kuat bagi diversifikasi ekonomi dan inovasi teknologi. Setelah Black Death, kerugian awal hidup karena kelaparan, wabah, penyakit sampar dan memberikan kontribusi untuk intensifikasi akumulasi modal di daerah perkotaan, dan dengan demikian stimulus untuk perdagangan, industri, dan berkembang pertumbuhan perkotaan di bidang beragam seperti perbankan ( yang Fugger perbankan keluarga di Augsburg dan Medici keluarga Florence yang paling menonjol); tekstil,persenjataan , terutama dirangsang oleh Perang Seratus Tahun , dan pertambangan bijih besi disebabkan, sebagian besar, untuk industri persenjataan booming. Akumulasi surplus, kompetitifkelebihan produksi , dan kompetisi tinggi untuk memaksimalkan keuntungan ekonomi, memberikan kontribusi terhadap perang saudara, agresif militerisme , dan dengan demikian untuk sentralisasi. Sebagai akibat langsung dari gerakan ke arah sentralisasi, pemimpin seperti Louis XI dari Perancis (1461-1483), "laba-laba raja", berusaha untuk menghapus semua pembatasan konstitusional terhadap pelaksanaan kewenangannya. Di Inggris , Perancis , dan Spanyol bergerak ke arah sentralisasi dimulai pada abad ketiga belas dilakukan dengan sukses.
Tapi seperti pemulihan dan kemakmuran berkembang, memungkinkan penduduk untuk mencapai tingkat semula pada abad 15 dan 16-an, kombinasi keduanya pasokan tenaga kerja baru melimpah serta produktivitas ditingkatkan, adalah 'berkat campuran' untuk banyak segmen Eropa Barat masyarakat. Meskipun tradisi, tuan tanah mulai bergerak untuk mengecualikan petani dari " lahan umum ". Dengan perdagangan dirangsang, pemilik tanah semakin menjauh dari berkenaan dgn tanah milik bangsawan ekonomi. Woollen manufaktur sangat diperluas di Perancis , Jerman, dan Belanda dan baru industri tekstil mulai berkembang.
Penemuan jenis bergerak akan mengakibatkan semangat Protestan untuk menerjemahkan Alkitab dan mendapatkan itu ke tangan kaum awam. Hal ini akan memajukan budaya literasi Alkitab.
The "humanisme" dari Renaissance periode dirangsang fermentasi akademis belum pernah terjadi sebelumnya, dan kepedulian terhadap kebebasan akademik . Sedang berlangsung, perdebatan teoritis sungguh-sungguh terjadi di universitas-universitas tentang sifat gereja, dan sumber dan tingkat otoritas kepausan, dewan, dan para pangeran.
Protes melawan Roma dimulai saat Martin Luther , seorang Augustinian biarawan dan profesor di Universitas Wittenberg , yang disebut pada tahun 1517 untuk membuka kembali perdebatan tentang penjualan indulgensi . Perbedaan pendapat Luther ditandai wabah tiba-tiba kekuatan baru dan tak tertahankan ketidakpuasan yang telah mendorong bawah tanah tapi tidak diselesaikan. Penyebaran cepat ketidakpuasan terjadi untuk tingkat besar karena mesin cetak dan gerakan cepat yang dihasilkan dari kedua ide dan dokumen, termasuk 95 Teknik . Informasi juga disebarkan secara luas dalam bentuk naskah, serta dengan cetakan murah dan ukiran kayu di antara bagian miskin dari masyarakat.
Sejalan dengan peristiwa di Jerman, dimulai gerakan di Swiss di bawah pimpinan Ulrich Zwingli . Kedua gerakan cepat menyepakati masalah yang paling, karena baru ini memperkenalkan mesin cetak ide menyebar dengan cepat dari satu tempat ke tempat, tetapi beberapa perbedaan yang belum terselesaikan membuat mereka terpisah. Beberapa pengikut Zwingli percaya bahwa Reformasi adalah terlalu konservatif, dan pindah secara mandiri menuju posisi yang lebih radikal, beberapa di antaranya bertahan hidup di antara modern Anabaptis .Gerakan Protestan lainnya tumbuh di sepanjang jalur mistisisme atau humanisme ( lih. Erasmus ), kadang-kadang melanggar dari Roma atau dari Protestan, atau membentuk luar gereja.
Setelah tahap pertama Reformasi, mengikuti ekskomunikasi Luther dan kutukan dari Reformasi oleh Paus, karya dan tulisan-tulisan John Calvin sangat berpengaruh dalam membangun konsensus yang longgar di antara berbagai kelompok di Swiss, Skotlandia , Hongaria, Jerman dan tempat lain.
Meskipun Luther dan Calvin memiliki ajaran teologis yang sangat mirip, hubungan antara pengikut mereka berbalik cepat untuk konflik. Prancis Michel de Montaigne menceritakan kisah seorang pendeta Lutheran yang pernah mengklaim bahwa ia lebih suka merayakan massa Roma daripada berpartisipasi dalam layanan Calvinis. [ rujukan? ]
Pemisahan politik dari Gereja Inggris dari Roma di bawah Henry VIII , mulai tahun 1529 dan selesai pada 1536, membawa Inggris bersama gerakan Reformed luas. Namun, perubahan agama di Inggris gereja nasional berjalan lebih konservatif dari tempat lain di Eropa. Reformator dalam Gereja Inggris berganti, selama berabad-abad, antara simpati untuk tradisi Katolik dan Protestan, semakin menempa kompromi stabil antara kepatuhan terhadap tradisi kuno dan Protestan, yang sekarang kadang-kadang disebut melalui media . [3]
Martin Luther, John Calvin, dan Ulrich Zwingli dianggap Reformis Magister karena gerakan reformasi mereka didukung oleh pemerintah yang berkuasa atau "hakim". Frederick Bijaksana tidak hanya didukung Luther, yang adalah seorang profesor di universitas yang ia dirikan, tetapi juga melindungi dia dengan menyembunyikan Luther di Wartburg Castle di Eisenach. Zwingli dan Calvin didukung oleh dewan kota di Zurich dan Jenewa .Karena "magister" istilah juga berarti "guru", Reformasi Magister juga ditandai dengan penekanan pada otoritas guru. Ini dibuat jelas dalam keunggulan Luther, Calvin, dan Zwingli sebagai pemimpin gerakan reformasi di daerah masing-masing pelayanan. Karena otoritas mereka, mereka sering dikritik oleh reformis radikal sebagai terlalu banyak seperti Paus Roma. Misalnya, radikal Reformis Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt disebut para teolog Wittenberg sebagai "Papists baru". [4]
[ mengedit ]Humanisme ke Protestan
Para reformisme frustrasi dari humanis, mengantar oleh Renaissance , memberikan kontribusi terhadap ketidaksabaran tumbuh di kalangan reformis.Erasmus dan tokoh kemudian seperti Martin Luther dan Zwingli akan muncul dari perdebatan ini dan akhirnya memberikan kontribusi ke skisma besar umat Kristen. Krisis awal teologi denganWilliam dari Ockham pada abad keempat belas itu terjadi dalam hubungannya dengan yang baru penduduk desa ketidakpuasan. Karena kerusakan pada filsafat dasar skolastik , yang barunominalisme tidak pertanda baik bagi sebuah lembaga gereja dilegitimasi sebagai perantara antara manusia dan Allah. Pemikiran baru disukai gagasan bahwa tidak ada agama doktrin dapat didukung oleh argumen filosofis, mengikis aliansi lama antara alasan dan iman dari periode abad pertengahan ditetapkan oleh Thomas Aquinas .
Gerakan reformasi besar individualistis yang memberontak terhadap skolastisisme abad pertengahan dan lembaga-lembaga yang didukung itu adalahhumanisme , kesalehan, (lihat misalnya, Saudara Kehidupan umum dan Jan Standonck ) dan observantine tradisi. Di Jerman , ditangkap "cara modern" atau kesalehan di dalam universitas, membutuhkan redefinisi Allah, yang tidak lagi sebuah prinsip yang mengatur rasional tetapi sebuah kehendak, sewenang-wenang tidak dapat diketahui yang tidak dapat dibatasi. Tuhan sekarang penggaris, dan agama akan lebih kuat dan emosional. Dengan demikian, kebangkitan berikutnya dari teologi Augustinian, yang menyatakan bahwa manusia tidak dapat diselamatkan oleh usahanya sendiri tetapi hanya oleh kasih karunia Allah, akan mengikis legitimasi lembaga kaku gereja dimaksudkan untuk menyediakan saluran bagi manusia untuk melakukan perbuatan baik dan masuk ke surga . Humanisme, bagaimanapun, adalah lebih dari sebuah gerakan reformasi pendidikan dengan asal diRenaissance kebangkitan itu dari belajar klasikal dan berpikir. Sebuah pemberontakan terhadap Aristoteles logika, itu sangat menekankan reformasi individu melalui kefasihan yang bertentangan dengan akal. Renaissance Eropa meletakkan dasar untuk humanis Utara dalam penguatan atas penggunaan tradisional Latin sebagai bahasa pemersatu besar kebudayaan Eropa.
Polarisasi masyarakat ilmiah di Jerman selama Reuchlin urusan (1455-1522), diserang oleh para ulama elit untuk belajar dari bahasa Ibrani dan teks Yahudi, membawa Luther sepenuhnya sejalan dengan reformasi pendidikan humanis yang mendukung kebebasan akademik . Pada saat yang sama, dampak dari Renaissance akan segera menjadi bumerang terhadap Katolik tradisional, mengantarkan era reformasi dan penolakan dari banyak tradisi Latin abad pertengahan. Dipimpin oleh Erasmus, humanis mengutuk berbagai bentuk korupsi di dalam Gereja, bentuk korupsi yang mungkin tidak lagi menonjol daripada selama puncak abad pertengahan gereja. Erasmus berpendapat bahwa agama yang benar adalah masalah pengabdian batin ketimbang simbol lahiriah upacara dan ritual. Kembali ke teks kuno, tulisan suci, dari sudut pandang ini puncak terbesar dari tradisi kuno, adalah panduan untuk hidup. Mendukung moral yang reformasi dan de-menekankan didaktik ritual, Erasmus meletakkan dasar bagi Luther.
Humanisme intelektual yang anti-klerikalisme sangat akan mempengaruhi Luther. Semakin terdidik tengah sektor Jerman Utara, yaitu masyarakat berpendidikan dan penduduk kota akan beralih ke Luther memikirkan kembali agama untuk konsep ketidakpuasan mereka sesuai dengan medium budaya pada zaman tersebut. Kenaikan besar dari burgher, keinginan untuk menjalankan bisnis baru mereka bebas dari hambatan kelembagaan atau praktek-praktek budaya ketinggalan zaman, memberikan kontribusi terhadap daya tarik humanis individualisme . Bagi banyak orang, Paus lembaga kaku, terutama mengenai pandangan mereka hanya pada harga dan riba . Di Utara, burgher dan raja yang bersatu dalam rasa frustrasi mereka karena tidak membayar pajak bagi negara, tapi mengumpulkan pajak dari subjek dan mengirimkan pendapatan proporsional kepada Paus di Italia .
Kecenderungan meningkat tuntutan reformasi yang signifikan dan revitalisasi bersama dengan anticlericalism. Pemikir baru mulai menyadari perbedaan antara para imam dan kawanan domba.Para ulama, misalnya, tidak selalu terdidik. Imam paroki sering tidak tahu Latin paroki dan pedesaan seringkali tidak memiliki peluang besar untuk pendidikan teologi bagi banyak pada saat itu.Karena kepemilikan tanah yang besar dan kekakuan kelembagaan, sebuah kekakuan yang jajaran terlalu besar ulama memberikan kontribusi, banyak uskup mempelajari hukum , bukan teologi, yang diturunkan ke peran manajer properti terlatih dalam administrasi. Sementara imam menekankan karya religiusitas, yang terhormat gereja mulai berkurang, terutama di kalangan kaum urban terpelajar, dan terutama mengingat senar terakhir penghinaan politik, seperti penangkapan Paus Bonifasius VIII oleh Philip IV dari Perancis , yang "Babel" , Skisma Besar, dan kegagalan reformisme konsili. Dalam arti, kampanye oleh Paus Leo X untuk mengumpulkan dana untuk membangun kembali St Basilika Petrus terlalu banyak kelebihan oleh sekuler Renaissance gereja, mendorong tekanan tinggi indulgensi yang diberikan para ulama perusahaan bahkan lebih tidak disukai di kota-kota.
Luther dipinjam dari humanis rasa individualisme, bahwa setiap orang dapat menjadi imam sendiri (sikap cenderung mencari dukungan populer mempertimbangkan peningkatan pesat dari kelas menengah terdidik perkotaan di Utara), dan bahwa satu-satunya otoritas yang benar adalah Alkitab , menggemakan semangat reformis dari gerakan konsili dan membuka perdebatan sekali lagi pada membatasi otoritas Paus. Sementara ide-idenya menyerukan redefinisi tajam garis pemisah antara orang awam dan ulama, ide-idenya masih, dengan titik ini, reformis di alam. Pendapat Luther bahwa kehendak manusia tidak mampu mengikuti baik, namun mengakibatkan keretakan dengan Erasmus akhirnya membedakan reformisme Lutheran dari humanisme .
[ sunting ]Lutheranisme diadopsi oleh para pangeran Jerman
Luther menegaskan suatu teologi dari Ekaristi disebut Kehadiran Nyata , sebuah doktrin kehadiran Kristus dalam Ekaristi yang menegaskan kehadiran nyata namun menjunjung tinggi bahwa roti dan anggur tidak "berubah" menjadi tubuh dan darah, melainkan unsur-unsur ilahi mematuhi " dalam, dengan, dan pada "unsur-unsur duniawi. Dia mengambil pemahaman tentang kehadiran Kristus dalam Ekaristi menjadi lebih harmonis dengan ajaran Gereja tentang Inkarnasi. Sama seperti Kristus adalah gabungan dari sepenuhnya manusia dan sepenuhnya ilahi (bdk. Konsili Kalsedon) sehingga untuk Ekaristi adalah persatuan Roti dan Tubuh, Anggur dan Darah. Menurut doktrin kehadiran nyata, zat tubuh dan darah Kristus dan roti dan anggur diadakan untuk hidup berdampingan bersama dalam Hosti yang telah dikonsekrasikan selama pelayanan komuni. Sementara Luther tampaknya mempertahankan konsekrasi abadi elemen, Lutheran lainnya berpendapat bahwa setiap roti atau anggur yang tersisa akan kembali ke keadaan semula saat misa berakhir. Lutheran yang paling menerima kedua.
Sebuah pemahaman Lutheran Ekaristi berbeda dari doktrin Reformed Ekaristi dalam Lutheran menegaskan kehadiran, nyata fisik Kristus dalam Ekaristi (yang bertentangan ke salah satu "kehadiran rohani" atau "peringatan") dan Lutheran menegaskan bahwa kehadiran Kristus tidak tergantung pada iman penerima; yang bertobat menerima Kristus dalam Ekaristi dengan layak, yang tidak bertobat yang menerima resiko Ekaristi murka Kristus.
Luther, bersama dengan rekannya Philipp Melanchthon , menekankan titik ini dalam ajakannya masuk Reformasi di Reichstag tahun 1529 di tengah tuduhan bid'ah . Namun perubahan yang diusulkan yaitu dia seperti alam mendasar bahwa dengan logika mereka sendiri, mereka secara otomatis akan menggulingkan orde lama, dan janganlah Kaisar atau Gereja mungkin bisa menerima mereka, seperti Luther juga tahu. Seperti hanya untuk diharapkan, dekrit oleh Diet Worms (1521) melarang semua inovasi. Sementara itu, dalam upaya untuk mempertahankan kedok seorang reformis Katolik sebagai lawan revolusioner sesat, dan untuk menarik pangeran Jerman dengan kecaman agamanya dari revolusi petani didukung oleh Ajaran Dua Kerajaan , konservatisme Luther tumbuh akan memprovokasi lebih radikal reformis.
Pada konferensi agama dengan Zwinglians tahun 1529, Melanchthon bergabung dengan Luther dalam menentang persatuan dengan Zwingli . Ada akhirnya akan menjadi perpecahan di dalam gerakan reformasi karena keyakinan Luther dalam nyata kehadiran -kehadiran (sebagai lawan simbolik) nyata Kristus dalam Ekaristi. Niat awalnya adalah bukan perpecahan, tetapi dengan Reichstag Augsburg (1530) dan penolakan dari "Pengakuan Augsburg" Lutheran, seorang Lutheran yang terpisah gereja akhirnya muncul. Dalam arti, Luther akan mengambil teologi lebih lanjut dalam penyimpangan dari dogma Katolik mapan, memaksa celah antara Erasmus dan Luther humanis. Demikian pula, Zwingli lebih lanjut akan menolak ritualisme, dan istirahat dengan Luther semakin konservatif.
Reformasi dan Kontra-Reformasi di Eropa. Protestan tanah dengan warna biru,Katolik di zaitun
Selain melampirkan kelas bawah, sektor tengah Jerman utara, yaitu masyarakat berpendidikan dan penduduk Jakarta akan beralih ke agama untuk konsep ketidakpuasan mereka sesuai dengan medium budaya pada zaman tersebut. Kenaikan besar dari burgher, keinginan untuk menjalankan bisnis baru mereka bebas dari hambatan kelembagaan atau praktek-praktek budaya ketinggalan zaman berkontribusi pada daya tarik individualisme. Bagi banyak orang, lembaga kepausan kaku, terutama mengenai pandangan mereka hanya pada harga dan riba . Di Utara, burgher dan raja yang bersatu dalam rasa frustrasi mereka karena tidak membayar pajak kepada negara, tetapi mengumpulkan pajak dari subjek dan mengirimkan pendapatan proporsional ke Italia. Di Eropa utara, Luther mengajukan banding ke kesadaran nasional yang tumbuh dari negara Jerman karena ia mengecam Paus karena keterlibatannya dalam politik maupun agama.Selain itu, ia mendukung kaum bangsawan, yang sekarang dibenarkan untuk menghancurkan Pemberontakan Petani Besar 1525 dan untuk menyita properti gereja oleh Luther Ajaran Dua Kerajaan . Hal ini menjelaskan daya tarik dari beberapa pangeran teritorial untuk Lutheranisme, terutama Ajaran yang dari Dua Kerajaan. Namun, Pemilih dari Brandenburg, Joachim saya, menyalahkan Lutheranisme untuk pemberontakan dan begitu pula orang lain.Di Brandenburg, hanya di bawah penggantinya Joachim II yang Lutheranisme didirikan, dan agama tua itu tidak secara resmi punah di Brandenburg sampai kematian uskup Katolik terakhir di sana, Georg von Blumenthal , yang Uskup Lebus dan berdaulat Pangeran-Uskup dari Ratzeburg .
Dengan bawahan gereja untuk dan agen otoritas sipil dan pemberontakan petani mengutuk pada istilah agama yang ketat, Lutheranisme dan sentimen nasionalis Jerman yang cocok bertepatan.
Meskipun Charles V berjuang Reformasi, itu adalah kebetulan bahwa baik masa pemerintahan pendahulunya nasionalis nya Maximilian saya melihat awal gerakan. Sementara negara-negara terpusat dari Eropa Barat telah mencapai kesepakatan dengan Vatikan mengizinkan mereka untuk menggambar pada properti kaya gereja untuk pengeluaran pemerintah, memungkinkan mereka untuk membentuk gereja-gereja negara yang sangat otonom Roma, langkah serupa atas nama Reich tidak berhasil selama pangeran dan uskup pangeran berjuang reformasi untuk menjatuhkan pretensi kekaisaran universal yang sekuler.
[ sunting ]Reformasi Protestan (1517 - 1579)
Pada awal abad 16, gereja dihadapkan dengan tantangan yang ditimbulkan oleh Martin Luther dengan ajaran tradisional gereja doktrin otoritas dan banyak praktik juga. Ketidakmampuan tampak dari Paus Leo X (1513-1521) dan para paus yang menggantikannya untuk memahami pentingnya ancaman yang ditimbulkan Luther - atau, bahkan, pemindahtanganan banyak orang Kristen oleh korupsi yang telah menyebar ke seluruh gereja - adalah utama faktor dalam pertumbuhan yang cepat dari Reformasi Protestan. Pada saat kebutuhan untuk kepemimpinan, kuat kepausan reformasi diakui, banyak dari Eropa Utara telah dikonversi ke Protestan.
Artikel utama: Martin Luther
Penjualan indulgensi ditunjukkan padaPertanyaan A ke sebuah Mintmaker, ukiran kayu oleh Jorg Breu the Elder dari Augsburg, sekitar tahun 1530.
Pintu Schlosskirche (benteng gereja) di Wittenberg Luther yang dikatakan telah dipaku nya 95 Theses, memicu Reformasi .
Pada 1516-17, Johann Tetzel , seorang biarawan Dominika dan komisaris kepausan untuk indulgensi , dikirim ke Jerman oleh Gereja Katolik Roma untuk menjual indulgensi untuk mengumpulkan uang untuk membangun kembali Basilika Santo Petrus di Roma. [17] Roma teologi Katolik menyatakan iman itu saja , apakah fidusia atau dogmatis, tidak bisa membenarkan manusia; [18] dan bahwa iman hanya seperti aktif dalam amal dan perbuatan baik (fides caritate Formata) dapat membenarkan manusia. [19]Karya-karya yang baik dapat diperoleh dengan menyumbangkan uang untuk gereja .
Pada tanggal 31 Oktober 1517, Luther menulis kepada Albrecht, Uskup Agung Mainz dan Magdeburg , memprotes penjualan indulgensi. Dia tertutup dalam suratnya salinan dari "Perdebatan Martin Luther pada Kekuatan dan Keampuhan Indulgensi", yang kemudian dikenal sebagai The 95 Theses .
Luther keberatan dengan pepatah dikaitkan dengan Johann Tetzel bahwa "Segera setelah koin dalam cincin peti, jiwa dari mata air api penyucian," [20] menegaskan bahwa, karena pengampunan adalah Allah sendiri untuk memberikan, mereka yang mengklaim bahwa indulgensi diampuni pembeli dari semua hukuman dan memberikan mereka keselamatan berada dalam kesalahan. Kristen, katanya, tidak boleh mengendurkan dalam mengikuti Kristus karena jaminan palsu tersebut.
Menurut Walter Kramer, Götz Trenkler, Gerhard Ritter dan Gerhard Prause, [21] [22] [23] cerita tentang posting di pintu telah melunasi sebagai salah satu pilar sejarah, tetapi fondasinya dalam kebenaran yang minimal. In the preface of the second pressing of Luther's compiled work, released after his death, humanist and reformist
Philipp Melanchthon writes 'reportedly, Luther, burning with passion and just devoutness, posted the Ninety-Five Theses at the
Castle Church in
Wittenberg , Germany at All Saints Eve, 31 October (Old calendar)”. At the time of the writing of the preface Melanchton lived in
Tübingen , far from Wittenberg. In the preface, Melanchton presents more facts that are not true: He writes that indulgence sales man
Johann Tetzel publicly burned Luther's Ninety-Five Theses, that Luther held colleges on nature and physics, and that Luther had visited Rome in 1511.For a professor of the Wittenberg University to post thesis on doors is unparalleled in history. Even further, Luther is known as strongly law abiding, and to publish his thoughts and direction in such a way would be strongly against his character. Luther has never mentioned anything in this direction in his writings, and the only contemporary account of the publishing of the thesis is the account of Luther's servant
Agricola , written in Latin. In this account, Agricola states that Luther presents 'certain thesis in the year of 1517 according to the customs of University of Wittenberg as part of a scientific discussion. The presentation of the thesis was done in a modest and respectful way, preventing to mock or insult anybody”. There is no mention of nailing the thesis to a door, nor does any other source report this. In reality, Luther presented a hand-written copy, accompanied with honourable comments to the archbishop Albrecht of
Mainz and
Magdenburg , responsible for the practice of the indulgence sales, and to the bishop of
Brandenburg , the superior of Luther.
It wasn't until January 1518 that friends of Luther translated the
95 Theses from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied, making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the
printing press .
[ 24 ] Within two weeks, copies of the theses had spread throughout Germany; within two months throughout Europe. In contrast to the speed with which the theses were distributed, the response of the papacy was painstakingly slow. After three years of debate and negotiations involving Luther, government, and church officials, on 15 June 1520, the Pope warned Luther with the
papal bull (edict)
Exsurge Domine that he risked
excommunication unless he recanted 41 sentences drawn from his writings, including the
95 Theses , within 60 days.
That autumn,
Johann Eck proclaimed the bull in Meissen and other towns.
Karl von Miltitz , a papal
nuncio , attempted to broker a solution, but Luther, who had sent the Pope a copy of his concilatory
On the Freedom of a Christian (which the Pope refused to read) in October, publicly set fire to the bull and
decretals at Wittenberg on 10 December 1520,
[ 25 ] an act he defended in
Why the Pope and his Recent Book are Burned and
Assertions Concerning All Articles .
[ edit ]Zwingli
Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of
Huldrych Zwingli (died 1531). These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, as the recently introduced
printing press spread ideas rapidly from place to place, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day
Anabaptists . Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or humanism (
cf. Erasmus ), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.
[ edit ]John Calvin
Following the
excommunication of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of
John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland,
Scotland , Hungary, Germany and elsewhere.
Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, led by the Frenchman,
Jean Calvin , until his death in 1564 (when Calvin's ally,
William Farel , assumed the spiritual leadership of the group).
The Reformation foundations engaged with
Augustinianism . Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of Augustine of Hippo. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against
Pelagianism , a heresy that they perceived in the Catholic Church of their day. Ironically, even though both Luther and Calvin both had very similar theological teachings, the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists evolved into one of conflict.
[ sunting ]Skandinavia
Di Swedia Reformasi dipelopori oleh Gustav Vasa , terpilih menjadi raja di 1523. Friction with the pope over the latter's interference in Swedish ecclesiastical affairs led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy from 1523.
[ 26 ] Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church property, church appointments required royal approval, the clergy were subject to the civil law, and the "pure Word of God" was to be preached in the churches and taught in the schools—effectively granting official sanction to Lutheran ideas.
[ 26 ]
Under the reign of
Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Catholic. But though Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was
Hans Tausen .
[ 26 ] During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became
Christian III and began a reformation of the official state church.
[ sunting ]Gereja Inggris
The separation of the
Church of England or Anglican Church from Rome under
Henry VIII , beginning in 1529 and completed in 1536, brought England alongside this broad Reformed movement. However, religious changes in the English national church proceeded more conservatively than elsewhere in Europe. Reformers in the Church of England alternated, for centuries, between sympathies for Catholic traditions and Protestantism, progressively forging a stable compromise between adherence to ancient tradition and Protestantism, which is now sometimes called the
via media (middle way).
In England, the Reformation followed a different course than elsewhere in Europe. There had long been a strong strain of anti-clericalism, and England had already given rise to the
Lollard movement of
John Wycliffe , which played an important part in inspiring the
Hussites in
Bohemia . Lollardy was suppressed and became an underground movement so the extent of its influence in the 1520s is difficult to assess. The different character of the English Reformation came rather from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of
Henry VIII . Henry had once been a sincere Catholic and had even authored a book strongly criticizing Luther, but he later found it expedient and profitable to break with the Papacy. His wife,
Catherine of Aragon , bore him only a single child,
Mary . As England had recently gone through a lengthy dynastic conflict (
see Wars of the Roses ), Henry feared that his lack of a male heir might jeopardize his descendants' claim to the throne. However, Pope Clement VII, concentrating more on Charles V's "sack of Rome", denied his request for an annulment. Had Clement granted the annulment and therefore admitted that his predecessor, Julius II, had erred, Clement would have given support to the Lutheran assertion that Popes replaced their own judgement for the will of God. King Henry decided to remove the
Church of England from the authority of Rome. In 1534, the
Act of Supremacy made Henry the
Supreme Head of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under
Thomas Cromwell , the policy known as the
Dissolution of the Monasteries was put into effect. The veneration of some
saints , certain pilgrimages and some pilgrim shrines were also attacked. Huge amounts of church land and property passed into the hands of the crown and ultimately into those of the nobility and gentry. The vested interest thus created made for a powerful force in support of the dissolutions.
There were some notable opponents to the
Henrician Reformation , such as
Thomas More and Bishop
John Fisher , who were executed for their opposition. There was also a growing party of reformers who were imbued with the Zwinglian and Calvinistic doctrines now current on the Continent. When Henry died he was succeeded by his Protestant son
Edward VI , who, through his empowered councillors (with the King being only nine years old at his succession and not yet sixteen at his death) the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, ordered the destruction of images in churches, and the closing of the
chantries . Under Edward VI the reform of the
Church of England was established unequivocally in doctrinal terms. Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of
Mary 1553–1558, a loose consensus developed during the reign of
Elizabeth I , though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. Yet it is the so-called "
Elizabethan Religious Settlement " to which the origins of
Anglicanism are traditionally ascribed. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme
Calvinism on the one hand and Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or
English Civil War in the seventeenth century.
[ edit ]Puritan movement
The success of the
Counter-Reformation on the Continent and the growth of a
Puritan party dedicated to further Protestant reform polarized the
Elizabethan Age , although it was not until the 1640s that England underwent religious strife comparable to that which its neighbours had suffered some generations before.
The early
Puritan movement (late 16th century-17th century) was
Reformed or
Calvinist and was a movement for reform in the
Church of England . Its origins lay in the discontent with the
Elizabethan Religious Settlement . The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially
Geneva . The Puritans objected to ornaments and ritual in the churches as
idolatrous (vestments, surplices, organs, genuflection), which they castigated as "
popish pomp and rags". (See
Vestments controversy .) They also objected to ecclesiastical courts. They refused to endorse completely all of the ritual directions and formulas of the
Book of Common Prayer ; the imposition of its liturgical order by legal force and inspection sharpened Puritanism into a definite opposition movement.
The most famous and well-known emigration to
America was the migration of the Puritan separatists from the Anglican Church of England, who fled first to
Holland , and then later to America, to establish the English colonies of
New England , which later became the
United States .
These Puritan separatists were also known as "
the pilgrims ". After establishing a colony at Plymouth (in what would become later Massachusetts) in 1620, the Puritan pilgrims received a charter from the
King of England which legitimized their colony, allowing them to do trade and commerce with merchants in England, in accordance with the principles of
mercantilism . This successful, though initially quite difficult, colony marked the beginning of the Protestant presence in America (the earlier French, Spanish and Portuguese settlements had been Catholic), and became a kind of oasis of spiritual and
economic freedom , to which persecuted Protestants and other minorities from the British Isles and Europe (and later, from all over the world) fled to for peace, freedom and opportunity.
The original intent of the colonists was to establish spiritual Puritanism, which had been denied to them in England and the rest of Europe to engage in peaceful commerce with England and the native American Indians and to Christianize the peoples of the Americas.
The Reformation in Scotland's case culminated ecclesiastically in the re-establishment of the church along
Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of
English influence over that of
France .
John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation
Protestantism also spread into France, where the Protestants were
nicknamed "
Huguenots ", and this touched off decades of warfare in France, after initial support by
Henry of Navarre was lost due to the "
Night of the Placards " affair. Many French Huguenots however, still contributed to the Protestant movement, including many who emigrated to the English colonies.
Though he was not personally interested in religious reform,
Francis I (1515–47) initially maintained an attitude of tolerance, arising from his interest in the
humanist movement. This changed in 1534 with the
Affair of the Placards . In this act, Protestants denounced the mass in placards that appeared across France, even reaching the royal apartments. The issue of religious faith having been thrown into the arena of politics, Francis was prompted to view the movement as a threat to the kingdom's stability. This led to the first major phase of anti-Protestant persecution in France, in which the
Chambre Ardente ("Burning Chamber") was established within the
Parlement of Paris to handle with the rise in prosecutions for heresy. Several thousand French Protestants fled the country during this time, most notably
John Calvin , who settled in
Geneva .
Calvin continued to take an interest in the religious affairs of his native land and, from his base in Geneva, beyond the reach of the French king, regularly trained pastors to lead congregations in France. Despite heavy persecution by
Henry II , the
Reformed Church of France , largely
Calvinist in direction, made steady progress across large sections of the nation, in the urban
bourgeoisie and parts of the
aristocracy , appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment.
French Protestantism, though its appeal increased under persecution, came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the noble conversions of the 1550s. This had the effect of creating the preconditions for a series of destructive and intermittent conflicts, known as the
Wars of Religion . The civil wars were helped along by the sudden death of
Henry II in 1559, which saw the beginning of a prolonged period of weakness for the French crown.
Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristic of the time, illustrated at its most intense in the
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of August 1572, when the Catholic Church annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France.
[ 27 ]The wars only concluded when
Henry IV , himself a former Huguenot, issued the
Edict of Nantes , promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Catholicism remained the official state religion, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in Louis XIV's
Edict of Fontainebleau —which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Catholicism the sole legal religion of France. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau,
Frederick William of
Brandenburg declared the
Edict of Potsdam , giving free passage to French Huguenot refugees, and tax-free status to them for 10 years.
Iconoclasm : The organised destruction of Catholic images, or
Beeldenstorm , swept through Netherlands churches in 1566.
The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the
Seventeen Provinces , but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the
Anabaptist movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the
Dutch Reformed Church , became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward.
![[Icon]](https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/blogger_img_proxy/AEn0k_saEFDRon6ebVyevX0_iOe0biR5nJJ-6uI8Yo3zqSOu3_J1BWSrzG_8QzQKQjogorsJlIs6Jci5i0PUEtY9gOaeohCaRPWxjvhcgWpuusfcsBRiM6V5TSxuDh6Rhg_UJbPeMx1tMFA91ogTQFrf5y8CS3n_bwy5z6HWgS-8wLLk_z3DB_Av_7iv5pOf2aFrq2sMmmNN3oVTkA=s0-d) | Bagian ini membutuhkan ekspansi . (April 2008) |
Much of the population of
Kingdom of Hungary adopted Protestantism during the sixteenth century. After the 1526
Battle of Mohács the Hungarian people were disillusioned by the ability of the government to protect them and turned to the faith which would infuse them with the strength necessary to resist the Turkish invaders.
[ citation needed ] They found this in the teaching of the Protestant Reformers such as
Martin Luther . The spread of Protestantism in the country was aided by its large ethnic German minority, which could understand and translate the
writings of Martin Luther . While Lutheranism gained a foothold among the German-speaking population,
Calvinism became widely accepted among ethnic Hungarians.
[ 28 ]
In the more independent northwest the rulers and priests, protected now by the
Habsburg Monarchy which had taken the field to fight the Turks, defended the old Catholic faith. They dragged the Protestants to prison and the stake wherever they could. Such strong measures only fanned the flames of protest, however.
[ citation needed ] Leaders of the Protestants included Matthias Biro Devai, Michael Sztarai, and Stephen Kis Szegedi.
Protestants likely formed a majority of Hungary's population at the close of the sixteenth century, but
Counter-Reformation efforts in the seventeenth century reconverted a majority of the kingdom to Catholicism.
[ 29 ] A significant Protestant minority remained, most of it adhering to the Calvinist faith.
In 1558 the
Transylvanian Diet of
Turda declared free practice of both the
Catholic and
Lutheran religions, but prohibited
Calvinism . Ten years later, in 1568, the Diet extended this freedom, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion". Four religions were declared as accepted (recepta) religions, while
Orthodox Christianitywas "tolerated" (though the building of stone Orthodox churches was forbidden). Hungary entered the
Thirty Years' War , Royal (Habsburg) Hungary joined the catholic side, until Transylvania joined the Protestant side.
There were a series of other successful and unsuccessful anti-Habsburg /ie anti-Austrian/ (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings between 1604 and 1711, the uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the seventeenth century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Catholicism.
[ edit ]The Great Awakenings
The "Great Awakenings" were periods of rapid and dramatic
religious revival in Anglo-American religious history, generally recognized as beginning in the 1730s.
Mereka juga telah digambarkan sebagai revolusi periodik dalam pemikiran keagamaan kolonial .
[ sunting ]Kebangkitan Besar Pertama
The "First Great Awakening" (or sometimes "The Great Awakening") was a wave of religious enthusiasm among Protestants that swept the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on American religion. It emphasising the traditional Reformed virtues of Godly preaching, rudimentary liturgy, and a deep sense of personal guilt and redemption by Christ Jesus. It resulted from powerful preaching that deeply affected listeners (already church members) with a deep sense of personal guilt and salvation by Christ. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made religion intensely personal to the average person by creating a deep sense of spiritual guilt and redemption. Historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom saw it as part of a "great international Protestant upheaval" that also created
Pietism in
Germany , the
Evangelical Revival , and
Methodism in
England .
[ 30 ] It had a major impact in reshaping the
Congregational ,
Presbyterian ,
Dutch Reformed , and German Reformed denominations, and strengthened the small
Baptist and
Methodist denominations. It brought Christianity to the slaves and was an apocalyptic event in
New England that challenged established authority. It incited rancor and division between the old traditionalists who insisted on ritual and doctrine and the new revivalists. It had little impact on
Anglicans and
Quakers .
Unlike the
Second Great Awakening that began about 1800 and which reached out to the unchurched, the First Great Awakening focused on people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety, and their self awareness. The new style of sermons and the way people practiced their faith breathed new life into
religion in America . People became passionately and emotionally involved in their religion, rather than passively listening to intellectual discourse in a detached manner. Ministers who used this new style of preaching were generally called "new lights", while the preachers of old were called "old lights". People began to study the Bible at home, which effectively decentralized the means of informing the public on religious manners and was akin to the individualistic trends present in Europe during the
Protestant Reformation .
[ edit ]Second Great Awakening
The Second Great Awakening made its way across the frontier territories, fed by intense longing for a prominent place for God in the life of the new nation, a new liberal attitude toward fresh interpretations of the Bible, and a contagious experience of zeal for authentic spirituality. As these revivals spread, they gathered converts to Protestant sects of the time. However, the revivals eventually moved freely across denominational lines, with practically identical results, and went farther than ever toward breaking down the allegiances which kept adherents to these denominations loyal to their own. Consequently, the revivals were accompanied by a growing dissatisfaction with Evangelical churches and especially with the doctrine of
Calvinism , which was nominally accepted or at least tolerated in most Evangelical churches at the time. Various unaffiliated movements arose that were often
restorationist in outlook, considering contemporary Christianity of the time to be a deviation from the true, original Christianity. These groups attempted to transcend
Protestant denominationalism and orthodox
Christian creeds to restore Christianity to its original form.
[ edit ]Third Great Awakening
[ edit ]Anti-clericalism and atheistic communism
In many revolutionary movements the church was associated with the established repressive regimes. Thus, for example, after the
French Revolution and the
Mexican Revolution there was a distinct
anti-clerical tone in those countries that exists to this day. In some cases, opposition to the clergy turned into opposition to religion itself; thus, for example,
Karl Marx condemned religion as the "
opium of the people "
[2] as he considered it a false sense of hope in an afterlife withholding the people from facing their worldly situation. Based on a similar quote ("opium for the people"), Lenin believed religion was being used by ruling classes as tool of suppression of the people. The
Marxist-Leninist governments of the twentieth century were generally atheistic. All of them restricted the exercise of religion to a greater or lesser degree, but only
Albania actually banned religion and officially declared itself to be an atheistic state.
Protestant Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by accelerating fragmentation.
Abad itu melihat munculnya kelompok sempalan kedua liberal dan konservatif, serta sekularisasi umum masyarakat Barat. The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize. Missionaries also made inroads in the
Far East , establishing further followings in
China ,
Taiwan , and
Japan . At the same time, state-promoted atheism in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought many Eastern Orthodox Christians to Western Europe and the United States, leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity. Nevertheless, church attendance declined more in Western Europe than it did in the East.
Christian ecumenism grew in importance, beginning at the
Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910, and accelerated after the
Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) of the
Catholic Church , The
Liturgical Movement became significant in both Catholic and Protestant Christianity, especially in
Anglicanism .
Another movement which has grown up over the 20th century has been
Christian anarchism which rejects the church, state or any power other than God. They usually also believe in absolute
nonviolence .
Leo Tolstoy 's book
The Kingdom of God is Within You published in 1894, is believed to be the catalyst for this movement. Because of its extremist political views, however, its appeal has been largely limited to the highly educated, especially those with erstwhile
humanist sentiments; the thoroughgoing aversion to institutionalism on Christian anarchists' part has also hindered acceptance of this philosophy on a large scale.
The 1950s saw a boom in the Evangelical church in America. The post–World War II prosperity experienced in the US also had its effects on the church. Although simplistically referred to as "morphological fundamentalism", the phrase nonetheless does accurately describe the physical developments experienced. Church buildings were erected in large numbers, and the Evangelical church's activities grew along with this expansive physical growth.
[ edit ]Pentecostal movement
Artikel utama: Pentakostalisme
Another noteworthy development in 20th-century Christianity was the rise of the modern
Pentecostal movement. Although its roots predate the year 1900, its actual birth is commonly attributed to the 20th century. Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of the meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history of Christianity—such as seen in the two Great Awakenings that started in the United States. However, Azusa Street is widely accepted as the fount of the modern Pentecostal movement. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the
Charismatic movement within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in western Christianity.
[ edit ]Modernism, fundamentalism, and neo-orthodoxy
As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the
Enlightenment began to be felt in the Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century,
Liberal Christianity , exemplified especially by numerous theologians in
Germany in the 19th century, sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that Modernism represented. In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious.
In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretation of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity. Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label Fundamentalist following one branch, while Evangelical has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement. Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals now live elsewhere in the world.
A third, but less popular, option than either liberalism or fundamentalism was the
neo-orthodox movement, which generally affirmed a higher view of Scripture than liberalism but did not tie the main doctrines of the Christian faith to precise theories of Biblical inspiration. If anything, thinkers in this camp denounced such quibbling between liberals and conservatives as a dangerous distraction from the duties of Christian discipleship. This branch of thought arose in the early 20th century in the context of the rise of the
Third Reich in Germany and the accompanying political and ecclesiastical destabilization of Europe in the years before and during
World War II . Neo-orthodoxy's highly contextual, dialectical modes of argument and reasoning often rendered its main premises incomprehensible to American thinkers and clergy, and it was frequently either dismissed out of hand as unrealistic or cast into the reigning left- or right-wing molds of theologizing.
Karl Barth , a
Swiss Reformed pastor and professor, brought this movement into being by drawing upon earlier criticisms of established (largely modernist) Protestant thought made by the likes of
Søren Kierkegaard and
Franz Overbeck ;
Dietrich Bonhoeffer , murdered by the
Nazis for allegedly taking part in an attempt to overthrow the
Hitler regime, adhered to this school of thought; his classic
The Cost of Discipleship is likely the best-known and accessible statement of the neo-orthodox position.
[ sunting ]Evangelikalisme
Artikel utama: Evangelikalisme
In the US and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the
evangelical wing of
Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post–World War I era,
Liberalism was the faster growing sector of the American church. Liberal wings of denominations were on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post–World war II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. Those entering seminaries and other postgraduate theologically related programs have shown more conservative leanings than their average predecessors.
The
neo-Evangelical push of the 1940s and 1950s produced a movement that continues to have wide influence. In the southern US, the more moderate neo-Evangelicals, represented by leaders such as
Billy Graham , have experienced a notable surge displacing the caricature of the pulpit pounding country preachers of fundamentalism. The stereotypes have gradually shifted. Some, such as
Jerry Falwell , have managed to maintain credibility in the eyes of many fundamentalists, as well as to gain stature as a more moderate Evangelical.
Evangelicalism is not a single, monolithic entity. The Evangelical churches and their adherents cannot be easily stereotyped. Most are not fundamentalist, in the narrow sense that this term has come to represent; though many still refer to themselves as such. There have always been diverse views on issues, such as openness to cooperation with non-Evangelicals, the applicability of the Bible to political choices and social or scientific issues, and even the limited inerrancy of the Bible.
However, the movement has managed in an informal way, to reserve the name Evangelical for those who adhere to an historic Christian faith, a paleo-orthodoxy , as some have put it. Those who call themselves "moderate evangelicals"(although considered conservative in relation to society as a whole) still hold fast to the fundamentals of the historic Christian faith. Even "Liberal" Evangelicals label themselves as such not so much in terms of their theology, but rather to advertise that they are progressive in their civic, social, or scientific perspective.
There is some debate as to whether
Pentecostals are considered to be Evangelical. Their roots in
Pietism and the
Holiness movement are undisputedly Evangelical, but their doctrinal distinctives differ from the more traditional Evangelicals, who are less likely to have an expectation of private revelations from God, and differ from the Pentecostal perspective on
miracles ,
angels , and
demons . Typically, those who include the Pentecostals in the Evangelical camp are labeled
neo-evangelical by those who do not. The
National Association of Evangelicals and the
Evangelical Alliance have numerous Trinitarian Pentecostal denominations among their membership.
[ 34 ] Another relatively late entrant to wide acceptance within the Evangelical fold is the
Seventh-day Adventist Church .
Evangelicals are as diverse as the names that appear—Billy Graham,
Chuck Colson , J. Vernon McGee,
Benny Hinn ,
JI Packer ,
John RW Stott ,
Pat Robertson ,
Jimmy Carter , etc.—or even Evangelical institutions such as Dallas Theological Seminary (dispensationalist), Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (Boston),
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (Chicago), Wheaton College (Illinois), the
Christian Coalition , The Christian Embassy (Jerusalem), etc. Although there exists a diversity in the Evangelical community worldwide, the ties that bind all Evangelicals are still apparent. These include but are not limited to a high view of Scripture, belief in the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, salvation by grace alone through faith alone, and the bodily resurrection of Christ.
[ edit ]10/40 Window
Evangelicals defined and prioritized efforts to reach the "unreached" in the late 20th and early 21st centuries by focusing on countries located between
10 degrees and
40 degrees North of the equator and stretching from North Africa across to China. This area is mostly dominated by Muslim nations, many who do not allow missionaries of other religions to enter their countries.
[ edit ]Spread of secularism
- Eropa
In
Europe there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards
secularism . The "secularization of society", attributed to the time of the
Enlightenment and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. For example the Gallup International Millennium Survey
[3] showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God "high importance", and only about 40% believe in a "personal God". Nevertheless the large majority considered that they "belong" to a
religious denomination .
- The Americas and Australia
In
North America ,
South America and
Australia , the other three continents where Christianity is the dominant professed religion, religious observance is much higher than in Europe. At the same time, these regions are often seen by other nations as being uptight and "Victorian", in their social mores
[ citation needed ] . In general, the United States leans toward the conservative in comparison to other western nations in its general culture, in part due to the Christian element found primarily in its Midwestern and southern states.
South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad. For example:
Brazil , South America's largest country, is the largest Catholic country in the world, and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world (based on population). Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil.
- ^ a b Article 1, of the Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.
- ^ Hussites
- ^ The Sacking of Rome & The English Reformation
- ^ Gstohl, Mark (2004). "The Magisterial Reformation" . Theological Perspectives of the Reformation . Diperoleh 2007-06-27.
- ^ Plass, Ewald M. "Monasticism," in What Luther Says: An Anthology . St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1959, 2:964.
- ^ Challenges to Authority: The Renaissance in Europe: A Cultural Enquiry, Volume 3, by Peter Elmer, page 25
- ^ "Martin Luther: Biography." AllSands.com. 26 July 2008 http://www.allsands.com/potluck3/martinlutherbi_ugr_gn.htm >.
- ^ "What ELCA Lutherans Believe." Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. 26 July 2008 [1] .
- ^ Saraswati, Prakashanand. The True History and the Religion of India : A Concise Encyclopedia of Authentic Hinduism. New York: Motilal Banarsidass (Pvt. Ltd), 2001. "His 'protest for reformation' coined the term Protestant, so he was called the father of Protestantism."
- ^ Hillerbrand, Hans J. "Martin Luther: Significance," Encyclopaedia Britannica , 2007.
- ^ Ewald M. Plass, What Luther Says , 3 vols., (St. Louis: CPH, 1959), 88, no. 269; M. Reu, Luther and the Scriptures , Columbus, Ohio: Wartburg Press, 1944), 23.
- ^ Luther, Martin. Concerning the Ministry (1523), tr. Conrad Bergendoff, in Bergendoff, Conrad (ed.) Luther's Works. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1958, 40:18 ff.
- ^ Fahlbusch, Erwin and Bromiley, Geoffrey William. The Encyclopedia of Christianity . Grand Rapids, MI: Leiden, Netherlands: Wm. B. Eerdmans; Brill, 1999–2003, 1:244.
- ^ Tyndale's New Testament , trans. from the Greek by William Tyndale in 1534 in a modern-spelling edition and with an introduction by David Daniell . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989, ix–x.
- ^ Bainton, Roland . Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther . New York: Penguin, 1995, 269.
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther . New York: Penguin, 1995, 223.
- ^ " Johann Tetzel ," Encyclopaedia Britannica , 2007: "Tetzel's experiences as a preacher of indulgences, especially between 1503 and 1510, led to his appointment as general commissioner by Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz, who, deeply in debt to pay for a large accumulation of benefices, had to contribute a considerable sum toward the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Albrecht obtained permission from Pope Leo X to conduct the sale of a special plenary indulgence (ie, remission of the temporal punishment of sin), half of the proceeds of which Albrecht was to claim to pay the fees of his benefices. In effect, Tetzel became a salesman whose product was to cause a scandal in Germany that evolved into the greatest crisis (the Reformation) in the history of the Western church."
- ^ (Trent, lc, can. xii: "Si quis dixerit, fidem justificantem nihil aliud esse quam fiduciam divinae misericordiae, peccata remittentis propter Christum, vel eam fiduciam solam esse, qua justificamur, as")
- ^ (cf. Trent, Sess. VI, cap. iv, xiv)
- ^ Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand: a Life of Martin Luther . New York: Penguin, 1995, 60; Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther . tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:182; Kittelson, James. Luther The Reformer . Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress Publishing House, 1986),104.
- ^ Krämer, Walter and Trenkler, Götz. "Luther," in Lexicon van Hardnekkige Misverstanden . Uitgeverij Bert Bakker, 1997, 214:216.
- ^ Ritter, Gerhard. "Luther , Frankfurt 1985.
- ^ Gerhard Prause "Luthers Thesanschlag ist eine Legende,"in Niemand hat Kolumbus ausgelacht . Düsseldorf, 1986.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. Martin Luther . tr. James L. Schaaf, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985–93, 1:204–205.
- ^ Brecht, Martin. (tr. Wolfgang Katenz) "Luther, Martin," in Hillerbrand, Hans J. (ed.) Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation . New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, 2:463.
- ^ a b c Chapter 12 The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia , Renaissance and Reformation by William Gilbert.
- ^ Paris and the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre: August 24, 1572
- ^ Revesz, Imre, History of the Hungarian Reformed Church, Knight, George AF ed., Hungarian Reformed Federation of America (Washington, DC: 1956).
- ^ The Forgotten Reformations in Eastern Europe - Resources
- ^ Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People . (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972) p. 263
- ^ Matzko, John (2007). "The Encounter of the Young Joseph Smith with Presbyterianism". Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought 40 (3): 68–84. Presbyterian historian Matzko notes that "Oliver Cowdery claimed that Smith had been 'awakened' during a sermon by the Methodist minister George Lane."
- ^ Robert William Fogel, The Fourth Great Awakening & the Future of Egalitarianism University of Chicago Press, 20000 ISBN 0-226-25662-6 . excerpt
- ^ Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House; Edmund Wilson, The American Earthquake.
- ^ Church Search
[ sunting ]tanggal Kunci
[ edit ]Print resources
- Fuller, Reginald H. (1965). The Foundations of New Testament Christology . New York: Scribners. ISBN 0-684-15532-X .
- González, Justo L. (1984). The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation . San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063315-8 .
- González, Justo L. (1985). The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day . San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-063316-6 .
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1975). A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500 (Revised) . San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-064952-6 (paperback) .
- Latorette, Kenneth Scott (1975). A History of Christianity, Volume 2: 1500 to 1975 . San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-06-064953-4 (paperback) .
- Shelley, Bruce L. (1996). Church History in Plain Language (2nd edition ed.). ISBN 0-8499-3861-9 .
- Hastings, Adrian (1999). A World History of Christianity . Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4875-3 .
[ sunting ]Pranala luar
The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:
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The following link provides quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
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